## Determining Right and Wrong **Act Utilitarianism:** The greatest good for the greatest number. An act, X, is morally permissible if the consequences produced by doing X result in the greatest good for the greatest number of persons affected by act X. An act is right or wrong to the extent that it increases or decreases the total happiness of the affected parties. **Rule Utilitarianism:** An act, X, is morally permissible if the consequences of following the general rule, Y, of which act X is an instance, would bring about the greatest good for the greatest number. We ought to adopt those moral rules that, if followed by everyone, lead to the greatest increase in total happiness over all affected parties. **Act Deontology:** We have certain self-evident duties which, all things being equal, we must follow. An act is only permissible if one is willing for the rule that allows the action to be a universal law by which everyone acts. Maxims fail this test if they produce either a contradiction in conception or a contradiction in the will when universalized. (Kant) **Rule Deontology:** We have self-evident duties which, all things being equal, we must follow. These are called actual duties. If there is a conflict between those duties, we must 1) reflect on the competing self-evident duty, and 2) weigh the evidence in hand to determine which course of action would be required in a particular circumstance. **Utilitarian** = Consequentialist **Nonutilitarian** = Non-consequentialist (deontological) ## Ethics Types **Utilitarianism Ethics - The right action is the one that results in the greatest good for the greatest number of people **Deontological Ethics - The idea that there exist a set of rules to follow and we have a moral obligation to abide by those rules regardless of consequence. **Virtue Ethics - This assumes that the virtuous person will choose the right action because they have cultivated a number of personal virtues. ## Study of Ethics **Ethics - The study of morality - What is morality? - *A system of rules for guiding human conduct, and principles for evaluating those rules - Morality is a system - It is a system comprised of moral *rules* and *principles* - What is the study of morality? - Ethics - **Dilemma - A situation where one must choose between two undesirable options - Choosing between the lesser of two evils **Rules of Conduct as Policies - There are two kinds of rules of conduct - Directives for guiding our conduct as individuals (at the micro-level) - Social Policies framed at the macro-level **Rules of Conduct as Directives - Rules that guide our actions and thus direct us to behave in certain ways - Rules such as - Do not steal - Do not harm **Social Policies **Principles **Basic Components of a Moral System ![[Pasted image 20240118150617.png]] *Bernard Gert's Scheme of a Moral System - Morality is a system to prevent harm and evils, that is: - public - like a game, but more like an *informal* game - ration - impartial - exclude religious, nationalistic, or scientific beliefs from their assessment of morality | | | | | |---|---|---|---| |Public|Informal|Rational|Impartial| |The rules are known to all of the members|The rules are informal, not like formal laws in a legal system.|The system is based on principles of logical reason accessible to all its members.|The system is not partial to any one group or individual.| **The Roles of Values in a Moral System - Values can be viewed as objects of our desires or interests - Moral principles are ultimately derived from a society's system of values **Intrinsic vs Instrumental Values** self vs needed **Core Values** main values **Moral vs Non-Moral Values - Morals and values are not necessarily identical - Values can be either moral or non-moral - When used to further only our own self-interests, these values are not necessarily moral values **Components of a Moral System ![[Pasted image 20240118151938.png]] **Cultural Relativism - Different cultures have different belief systems about what constitutes morally right and wrong behavior. **Ethical Relativism - **Moral Relativism [Quiz Review for Week 2](Quiz%20Review%20for%20Week%202.md)