## Definitions **Ethical/social dilemma - When you must make a choice between two bad choices **Utilitarianism - The ethical theory that whatever option would do the most good for the most number of people **Deontology - The belief you should always follow the rules no matter the outcome **Cybertechnology - Umbrella term for a wide range of computing and communications devices - Can be - standalone computers - "connected"/networked computing - the internet itself **Cyberethics - The study of moral, legal, and social issues involving cybertechnology - Examines in the impact that cybertechnology has for our social, legal, and moral systems - More accurate than *computer ethics* which can suggest ethics issues limited to either: - Computing machines, or - Computing professionals - Also more accurate than *internet ethics*, which is limited only to ethical issues affecting: - **ONLY** networked computers and devices - Evaluates the social policies and laws that we use in response to issues generated by the development | | | | | |---|---|---|---| |Phase|Time Period|Technological Features|Associated Issues| |1|1950s-1960s|Stand-alone machines (large mainframe computers)|Artificial intelligence (AI), database privacy ("Big Brother")| |2|1970s-1980s|Minicomputers and PCs interconnected via privately owned networks|Issues from Phase 1 plus concerns involving intellectual property and software piracy, computer crime, privacy and the exchange of records.| |3|1990s-Present|Internet and World Wide Web|Issues from Phases 1 and 2 plus concerns about free speech, anonymity, legal jurisdiction, virtual communities, etc.| |4|Present to<br>Near Future |Convergence of information and communication  technologies with nanotechnology research and bioinformatics research, etc.|Issues from Phases 1-3 plus concerns about artificial agents ("bots") with decision-making capabilities, AI-induced bionic chip implants, nanocomputing, pervasive computing, etc.| ## Evolution of Cybertechnology and Cyberethics *Phase 1 - Computers emerged in the late 40s - no more than 6 computer would ever need to be built - First phase of computing technology in 50s and 60s - consisted of mainly huge mainframe computers that were standalone machines - Computing machines thought of as giant brains, and what that meant for being human - Fear of "Big Brother is Watching You" *Phase 2 - 1970s and 1980s - Computing machines and communication devices began to converge - Mainframe computers and PCs (personal computers) could be linked together via privately owned networks, which generated 3 ethical issues: 1) *privacy* concerns (from phase 1) were exacerbated because confidential information could be easily exchanged between networked databases 2) *intellectual property* issues emerged because PCs could be easily used to duplicate and exchange proprietary software programs 3) *computer crime* emerged because "hackers" could break into the computers of large organizations, or governments *Phase 3 - 1990-present - Internet and Web-based technologies raised ethical concerns affecting - Free speech - Anonymity - Jurisdiction *Phase 4 - Present-near future - Proliferation of social networking sites possible because of Web 2, now on Web 3 - Moor (2005), notes that computing devices will be soon part of our clothing, and even our bodies - Ubiquitous; computers are found everywhere - are beginning to pervade our work and recreational environments - Objects in said environments already exhibit "ambient intelligence" (Brey, 2005), which enables "smart objects" to be connected via wireless technology - Computers are becoming *less visible* as distinct entities as they: 1) continue to be miniaturized and integrated into ordinary objects 2) blend unobtrusively into our surroundings - *Cybertechnology* is also becoming **less distinguishable** from other technologies as boundaries begin to blur - Ethical concerns associated with this Phase include controversies that are made possible by: - Autonomous machines and sophisticated robots - Nanocomputing and nano-scale devices - Artificial agents ("soft bots") that act on behalf of humans and corporations - AI-induced bionic chip implants (humans vs cyborgs) ## Uniqueness of Cyberethics Issues Debate - Two points of view on whether cybertechnology has generated any new or unique ethical issues - *Traditionalists* - Argue that nothing is new, crime is crime, murder is murder - Underestimate the role that issues of *scale* and *scope* that apply because of the impact of computer technology. - Correctly point out that *no new ethical issues* have been introduced by computers - *Uniqueness Proponents* - Argue that cybertechnology has introduced new and unique ethical issues that could not have existed before computers - Tend to confuse *unique features of computer technology* with *unique ethical issues* - Correct int hat cybertechnology has complicated our analysis of traditional ethical issues - It is useful to distinguish between any: - Unique technological features - (alleged) Unique ethical issues - This argument is based on <u>logical fallacy:</u> - **Premise** - Cybertechnology has some unique technological features - **Premise** - Cybertechnology generates some ethical issues - **Conclusion** - (At least some of the) Ethical issues generated by cybertechnology must be unique. - **Logical Fallacy** - An error in reasoning or a false assumption that might *sound* impressive, but proves absolutely nothing. ## Policy Vacuums and Conceptual Muddles - **Policy vacuums** are voids or gaps in our laws and policies - One solution seems to be to fill the voids with new or revised policies - Due to **Conceptual Muddles**, some policy vacuums cannot be easily filled - In these cases, conceptual muddles need to be explained before clear policies can be formulated and justified - **Conceptual Muddle** - A lack of an agreed upon frame of reference for technology ## Applied Ethics - Applied ethics examines practical "ethical issues" - Analyzes moral issues from the vantage point of one or more ethical theories - Ethicists working in this field are interested in apply theories to specific moral problems, rather than debating the ethical theories themselves - Modern approach 1. Look at the specifics of the case 2. Look for the morally/ethically relevant features of the case 3. The basis of final decision on the case is formed using the corresponding classical theory, along with practical considerations - **Research shows that focusing on cases and not theory increases the possibility of an agreement** between deciding parties #### Applied Ethics: Three Distinct Perspectives 1. **Professional Ethics (Normative)** - This view believes the purpose of cyberethics is to identify and analyze issues of ethical responsibility for IT professionals - Computer issues are *professional ethics* issues. They are similar to medical/legal ethics, which are tied to specific issues involving those professions. - Computer issues aren't always about technology, per se - We don't have automobile ethics, or airplane ethics 2. **Philosophical Ethics (Normative)** - This view believes that cyberethics is a field of philosophical analysis and inquiry that goes beyond professional ethics - "...the analysis of the nature and social impact of computer technology and the corresponding formulation and justification of policies for the ethical use of such technology." (Moor, 2000) - Moor argues that automobile/airplane technologies did not affect our social policies and norms in the same kinds of fundamental ways that computer technology has, and definitely did not have the same impact on our legal/moral systems - The standard methodology in applied ethics has 3 stages: 1. Identify a particular controversial practice as a moral problem 2. Describe and analyze the problem by clarifying concepts and examining the factual data associated with that problem 3. Apply moral theories and principles to reach a position about the particular moral issue 3. **Sociological Ethics (Descriptive)** - This view can prepare us for our subsequent (normative) analysis of the ethical issues that affect our system of policies and laws - When we understand the descriptive aspect of social effects of technology, the normative ethical issues become clearer - **Normative vs Descriptive** - **Normative** inquiries evaluate situations from the vantage-point of the question - "What ***ought to be*** the case?" - **Descriptive** investigations report about: - "What ***is*** the case" **Summary of Cyberethics Perspectives** ## "Disclosive" Method for Cyberethics - Due to embedded biases in cybertechnology, the standard applied-ethics methodology is not adequate for identifying cyberethics issues. - We might fail to notice certain features embedded in the design of cybertechnology. - We might also fail to recognize that certain practices involving cybertechnology can have moral implications. - The “standard method of applied ethics” is that it tends to focus on known moral controversies. - So, that model fails to identify practices involving cybertechnology which have moral implications that are not yet known. - Brey refers to these practices as having morally opaque (or morally non-transparent) features, which he contrasts with "morally transparent” features.  - This disclosive method is *multidisciplinary* because it requires the collaboration of: - *computer scientists* - *philosophers* - *social scientists* - The scheme is also *multi-level* because the method for conducting computer ethics research requires three levels of analysis: - *A disclosure level* - *A theoretical level* - *An application level*  ## Three-Step Strategy for Approaching Cyberethics Issues 1. Identify a practice involving cyber-technology, or a feature in that technology, that is controversial from a moral perspective. a) Disclose any hidden (or opaque) features or issues that have moral implications b) If the ethical issue is descriptive, assess the sociological implications for relevant social institutions and socio-demographic populations c) If the ethical issue is also normative, determine whether there are any specific guidelines, i.e., professional codes that can help you resolve the issue d) If the normative ethical issues remain, go to Step 2. 2. Analyze the ethical issue by clarifying concepts and situating it in a context. a) If a policy vacuum exists, go to Step 2b; otherwise go to Step 3. b) Clear up any conceptual muddles involving the policy vacuum and go to Step 3 3. Deliberate on the ethical issue. The deliberation process requires two stages: a) Apply one or more ethical theories (see Chapter 2) to the analysis of the moral issue, and then go to Step 3b b) Justify the position you reached by evaluating it against the rules for logic / critical thinking (see Chapter 3). [Quiz Review for Week 1](Quiz%20Review%20for%20Week%201.md)